Language is not only a means of conveying neutral or polite content; it also allows speakers to express negative, insulting, or provocative attitudes. Dysphemisms are expressions that are more harsh or offensive than a neutral or euphemistic alternative. They serve rhetorical, psychological, social, and pragmatic functions. Examining dysphemisms helps us understand how speakers manipulate tone, identity, power, and social norms. This article discusses what dysphemisms are, why people use them, the functions they perform in English, and their importance in media, politics, interpersonal communication, and culture.

Orthophemisms, dysphemisms, humor, irony

Allan, Keith & Burridge, Kate (2006) – Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of

Lippi-Green, Rosina (2012) – English with an Accent: Language, Ideology and Discrimination in the United States

Fairclough, Norman (2001) – Language and Power. Discusses how power is exercised through language, including via pejorative or dysphemistic language.

Lakoff, Robin (1975) – Language and Woman’s Place. Looks at gender and language, including how dysphemisms can be gendered.

Chilton, Paul (2004) – Analysing Political Discourse: Theory and Practice.

Halliday, M.A.K. & Matthiessen, Christian M.I.M. (2014) – Halliday’s Introduction to Functional Grammar

Burridge, Kate (2010) – Linguistic Cleanliness is Next to Godliness: Taboo and Purism

Culpeper, Jonathan (2011) – Impoliteness: Using Language to Cause Offence. Offers insights into intentional dysphemism as a pragmatic strategy.

Jay, Timothy (2009) – The Psychology of Language: Why We Swear. Covers psychological and emotional drivers behind dysphemistic language.